DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

Direct Speech:

Direct speech, also known as quoted speech, consists of words or phrases that are taken directly from the source. These words are quoted or written exactly as the words were originally spoken.

With regards to direct speech, there is no interpretation or annotation; the words are taken directly from one source and repeated to another. In other words, we take the words directly from the speaker and repeat them exactly as they were originally stated.

Examples of direct speech:

•           Jonah said, ''I don't like your hat.''

•           Jonah said, ''Please take off that Yankees hat.''

•           Jane said, ''It's not my fault that you are a Red Sox fan.''

Indirect Speech:

Indirect speech, also known as reported speech, is when words or phrases are reported in our own words. The original words are modified and/or interpreted as opposed to being quoted.

When talking about indirect speech, we use words that refer to something that has already happened. To do so, we are speaking in the past tense and are summarizing, modifying, or synthesizing what has already been said.

Examples of direct speech:

•           Amy said it was cold.

•           He said he had been on Facebook since 2010.

•           She said she had been teaching college classes for two years.

Changing Direct Speech into Indirect Speech:

General rules for changing direct speech into indirect speech

Omit all inverted commas or quotation marks. End the sentence with a full stop.

If the verb inside the inverted commas/quotation marks is in the present tense, change it into the corresponding past tense. If it is in the simple past tense, change it into the past perfect tense.

-Direct speech: The girl said, ‘I like singing.’

-Indirect speech: The girl said that she liked singing.

-Direct speech: Rahul said, ‘I will have to reach home by 8.30.’

-Indirect speech: Rahul said that he would have to reach home by 8.30.

-Direct speech: Alina said, ‘I met James yesterday.’

-Indirect speech: Alina said that she had met James yesterday.

When the verb inside the quotation marks expresses a universal truth, we do not normally change it into the past tense.

-He said, ‘All people have equal rights.’

-He said that all people have equal rights. (More natural than ‘He said that all people had equal rights.’)

Use pronouns appropriately.

Study the examples given below.

-Direct speech: The boy told the girl, ‘I told you that we were not going on a holiday.’

-Indirect speech: The boy told the girl that he had told her that they were not going on a holiday.

Changing Indirect Speech to Direct Speech:

The conversion of Indirect to Direct Speech generally presents no special difficulties.

Follow all the rules which we learned for changing the Direct to Indirect Speech in reverse for changing Indirect to Direct Speech.

The following examples will show you how simple and easy it is.

Examples:

•           Indirect: He enquired whether his name was Ahmed.

•           Direct: He said to him, “Is not your name Ahmed?"

•           Indirect: Clinton asked John to go with him.

•           Direct: Clinton said to John, “Come with me."

•           Indirect: The stranger asked Alice where he lived.

•           Direct: The stranger said to Alice, ‘where do you live?’

•           Indirect: An old mouse asked who would bell the cat.

•           Direct: An old mouse said, “Who will bell the cat?"

•           Indirect: Ram said to his mother that he would be late that night.

•           Direct: Ram said to his mother, “I will be late today night."

These examples are enough for you to understand how to change an Indirect to Direct Speech.

Statements in Reported Speech:

If you use a statement in Reported Speech, follow the steps described on our page Reported Speech – Summary.

• changing of the person, backshift of tenses, shifting of expressions of time/place

1. The introductory sentence

1.1. The introductory sentence in the Simple Present

If the introductory sentence is in the Simple Present, there is no backshift of tenses.

• Direct Speech → Susan: “Mary works in an office.”
• Reported Speech → Susan says (that)* Mary works in an office.

The introductory sentence is here: Susan says ... → this sentence is in the Simple Present, so there is no backshift of tenses.

1.2. The introductory sentence in the Simple Past

If the introductory sentence is in the Simple Past, there is mostly backshift of tenses.

• Direct Speech → Susan: “Mary works in an office.”
• Reported Speech → Susan said (that)* Mary worked in an office.

The introductory sentence is here: Susan said ... → this sentence is in the Simple Past, so there is backshift of tenses.

1.3. Types of introductory sentences

The word say in introductory sentences can be substituted with other words, e.g.

• add
• decide
• know
• mention
• remark
• tell *
• think

2. Change of persons/pronouns

The person/pronoun used in Direct Speech may be adapted in Reported Speech, depending on the situation.

Emily and John are talking about fashion at school. Emily says to John:

• Emily: “I like your new T-shirt.”

Possibility 1:

John says to his friend Max in the afternoon:

• Emily said (that) she liked my new T-shirt.

Possibility 2:

Emily says to her friend Julia in the afternoon:

• I said (that) I liked his new T-shirt.

3. Backshift of tenses

If the introductory sentence in in the Simple Past, there is backshift of tenses in Reported Speech. We shift the tense used in Direct Speech one step back in Reported Speech. If we use Past Perfect or the modals would, could, should, might, must, ought to and needn't in Direct Speech there is possibility to shift the tense back in Reported Speech.

3.1. Simple Present → Simple Past

Direct Speech	Reported Speech
Peter: “I work in the garden.”	Peter said (that) he worked in the garden.

3.2. Simple Past, Present Perfect, Past Perfect → Past Perfect

Direct Speech	Reported Speech
Peter: “I worked in the garden.”	Peter said (that) he had worked in the garden.
Peter: “I have worked in the garden.”
Peter: “I had worked in the garden.”

3.3. Auxiliaries, Modals

Direct Speech	Reported Speech
Peter: “I will work in the garden.”	Peter said (that) he would work in the garden.
Peter: “I can work in the garden.”	Peter said (that) he could work in the garden.
Peter: “I may work in the garden.”	Peter said (that) he might work in the garden.
Peter: “I would work in the garden.” could might should ought to	Peter said (that) he would work in the garden. could might should ought to

3.4. Present Progressive → Past Progressive

Direct Speech	Reported Speech
Peter: “I'm working in the garden.”	Peter said (that) he was working in the garden.
Peter: “I was working in the garden.”	Peter said (that) he had been working in the garden.
Peter: “I have been working in the garden.”
Peter: “I had been working in the garden.”

3.5. Past Progressive, Present Perfect Progressive, Past Perfect Progressive → Past Perfect Progressive

Direct Speech	Reported Speech
Peter: “I was working in the garden.”	Peter said (that) he had been working in the garden.
Peter: “I have been working in the garden.”
Peter: “I had been working in the garden.”

4. Shifting/Conversion of expressions of time and place

If there is an expression of time/place in the sentence, it my be shifted, depending on the situation.

Emily is at school, writing in her workbook. She misses her red pen at lunchtime. Emily says to John:

• “I lost my red pen here this morning.”

Possibility 1:

John says to his friend Max who is in the same room.

• Emily said (that) she had lost her red pen here this morning.

Possibility 2:

One day later, John sees his friend Gerry at his house. They talk about school.

• John says to Gerry → Emily said (that) she had lost her red pen at our school that morning.
• John says to Gerry → Emily said (that) she had lost her red pen there yesterday morning.

Direct Speech	Reported Speech
this evening	that evening
today/this day	that day
these days	those days
now	Then
a week ago	a week before
last weekend	the weekend before / the previous weekend
next week	the following week
tomorrow	the next/following day
here	There

* Do not forget the person after the word tell:

• She told me (that) ...
• She told George (that) ...

QUESTION FORMS AND REPORTED SPEECH:

WORD ORDER

Normal word order is used in reported questions, that is, the subject comes before the verb, and it is not necessary to use 'do' or 'did':

EXAMPLES:

Direct speech	Indirect speech
"Where does Peter live?"	She asked him where Peter lived.
"Where are you going?"	She asked where I was going.
"Why is she crying?"	He asked why she was crying.

YES / NO QUESTIONS

This type of question is reported by using 'ask' + 'if / whether' + clause:

EXAMPLES:

Direct speech	Indirect speech
"Do you speak English?"	He asked me if I spoke English.
"Are you British or American?"	He asked me whether I was British or American.
"Is it raining?"	She asked if it was raining.
"Have you got a computer?"	He wanted to know whether I had a computer.
"Can you type?"	She asked if I could type.
"Did you come by train?"	He enquired whether I had come by train.
"Have you been to Bristol before?"	She asked if I had been to Bristol before.

QUESTION WORDS

This type of question is reported by using 'ask' (or another verb like 'ask') + question word + clause. The clause contains the question, in normal word order and with the necessary tense change.

EXAMPLES:

Direct speech	Indirect speech
"What is your name?" he asked me.	He asked me what my name was.
"How old is your mother?", he asked.	He asked how old her mother was.
The policman said to the boy, "Where do you live?"	The policeman asked the boy where he lived.
"What time does the train arrive?" she asked.	She asked what time the train arrived.
"When can we have dinner?" she asked.	She asked when they could have dinner.
Peter said to John, "Why are you so late?"	Peter asked John why he was so late.

Imperative:

Imperative sentences do not normally have an expressed subject. This is because the subject ‘you’ is usually understood. As a result of this, imperative sentences begin with a verb in the simple present tense.

An imperative sentence expresses ideas such as advice, order, request, suggestion, instruction, permission, allowance etc.

In order to change an imperative sentence into the indirect speech, we use a to-infinitive. A –that clause is also possible in some cases. Note that instead of ‘said’ we use one of the following reporting verbs.

Advise, command, request, suggest, threaten, order, forbid, decree, propose, entreat, prompt, counsel, pardon, beg, persuade, instruct etc.

Notes:

After suggest, we use a –that clause and not an infinitive.

The verb propose is not followed by an object.

The verb forbid itself conveys a negative sense. Therefore, we do not use not in the following clause.

Study the following examples:

-Direct: The old woman said to the boy, ‘Please help me.’

-Indirect: The old woman requested the boy to help her.

-Direct: I said to him, ‘Love and obey your parents.’

-Indirect: I advised him to love and obey his parents. OR I advised that he should love and obey his parents.

-Direct: The teacher said to the students, ‘Work hard.’

-Indirect: The teacher advised the boys to work hard. OR The teacher suggested that the boys should work hard.

Sources:

https://study.com/academy/lesson/direct-vs-indirect-speech-definition-rules-examples.html

http://www.weblearn.in/direct_speech/

https://www.englishgrammar.org/direct-indirect-speech-general-rules/

http://www.english-for-students.com/IndirecttoDirectSpeech.html

https://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/grammar/reported_statements.htm

https://www.ef.edu/english-resources/english-grammar/question-forms-and-reported-speech/

https://www.englishpractice.com/improve/changing-imperative-sentence-indirect-speech/

CONDITIONAL SENTENCE

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Definition of Conditional Sentence:

Conditional sentences (also known as conditional clauses or if clauses) are made up of two halves. One half (the half with the word if in) is a condition, and the other half (the main clause) states the action to occur if the condition is fulfilled.

1.The Types of Conditional Sentence with if.

There are three types of conditional sentence:

a.      Conditional Sentence Type 1

Type 1 sentences are used when it is likely that the condition will be fulfilled. It is formed like this:

Examples of Conditional Sentence Type 1:

·         If you swallow some of the cleaning fluid, it will kill you.

·         If I get a little humility, I will be perfect.

How to Use First Conditional Sentences

First conditional sentences are used to express situations in which the outcome is likely (but not guaranteed) to happen in the future. Look at the examples below:

·         If you rest, you will feel better.

·         If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll eventually achieve it.

Note that we use the simple present tense in the if-clause and simple future tense in the main clause—that is, the clause that expresses the likely outcome. This is how we indicate that under a certain condition (as expressed in the if-clause), a specific result will likely happen in the future. Examine some of the common mistakes people make using the first conditional structure.

·         If you will rest, you will feel better.

·         If you rest, you will feel better.

Explanation: Use the simple present tense in the if-clause.

·         If you set your mind to a goal, you eventually achieve it.

·         If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll eventually achieve it.

Explanation: Use the zero conditional (i.e., simple present + simple present) only when a certain result is guaranteed. If the result is likely, use the first conditional (i.e., simple present + simple future).

b.      Conditional Sentence Type 2

Type 2 sentences are used when it is unlikely that the condition will be fulfilled. It is formed like this:

Examples of Conditional Sentence Type 2:

·         If you swallowed some of the cleaning fluid, it would kill you.

·         If I had a little humility, I would be perfect.

How to Use Second Conditional Sentences

Second conditional sentences are useful for expressing outcomes that are completely unrealistic or will not likely happen in the future. Consider the examples below:

·         If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

·         If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the animals more.

Notice the correct way to structure second conditional sentences is to use the simple past tense in the if-clause and an auxiliary modal verb (e.g., could, should, would, might) in the main clause (the one that expresses the unrealistic or unlikely outcome). The following sentences illustrate a couple of the common mistakes people make when using the second conditional:

·         If I inherit a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

·         If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

Explanation: When applying the second conditional, use the simple past tense in the if-clause.

·         If I owned a zoo, I will let people interact with the animals more.

·         If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the animals more.

Explanation: Use a modal auxiliary verb in the main clause when using the second conditional mood to express the unlikelihood that the result will actually happen.

c.       Conditional Sentence Type 3

Type 3 sentences are used when it is impossible for condition to be fulfilled because the possibility has already passed. It is formed like this:

Examples of Conditional Sentence Type 3:

·         If you had swallowed some of the cleaning fluid, it would have killed you.

·         If I had had a little humility, I would have been perfect.

How to Use Third Conditional Sentences

Third conditional sentences are used to explain that present circumstances would be different if something different had happened in the past. Look at the following examples:

·         If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.

·         If I had cleaned the house, I could have gone to the movies.

These sentences express a condition that was likely enough, but did not actually happen in the past. The speaker in the first sentence was capable of leaving early, but did not. Along these same lines, the speaker in the second sentence was capable of cleaning the house, but did not. These are all conditions that were likely, but regrettably did not happen.

Note that when using the third conditional, we use the past perfect (i.e., had + past participle) in the if-clause. The modal auxiliary (would, could, shoud, etc.) + have + past participle in the main clause expresses the theoretical situation that could have happened.

Consider these common mistakes when applying the third conditional:

·         If you would have told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.

·         If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.

Explanation: With third conditional sentences, do not use a modal auxiliary verb in the if-clause.

·         If I had cleaned the house, I could go to the movies.

·         If I had cleaned the house, I could have gone to the movies.

Explanation: The third conditional mood expresses a situation that could have only happened in the past if a certain condition had been met. That’s why we use the modal auxiliary verb + have + the past participle.

2. Conditional Sentence with Expressing Hope

We use 'hope' to talk about things in the present or future that we think have a good chance of happening. On the other hand, we use 'wish' to talk about things that are impossible or unlikely. See more about 'wish' here.

We usually need to use '(that) + clause' after 'hope' or 'to + infinitive'. It's very common to drop 'that'.

·         I hope that you have a great time.

·         I hope that she passed the exam.

·         I hope to pass the exam.

·         I hope to get there early.

We can also use two short answers: 'I hope so' and 'I hope not'.

a.Hope for the present

We can use the present simple (mostly for stative verbs) or the present continuous.

·         I hope (that) it's sunny where you are.

·         I hope (that) she's having a wonderful time.

b.Hope for the future

We can use either the present simple (more common) or the future simple (less common). It usually doesn't change the meaning.

·         I hope that she comes to the party tomorrow.

·         I hope that she'll come to the party tomorrow.

We often use 'can' with 'hope' for the future.

·         I hope you can come to the party tomorrow.

We can use 'to + infinitive' with 'hope' for the future. When we use 'to + infinitive', the subject is the same as the subject of 'hope'.

·         I hope to come to the party tomorrow. (=I hope I can come to the party tomorrow.)

·         I hope to run a marathon this year.

c.Hope for the past

We can also use 'hope' to talk about the past when we think it was possible for the thing to really happen.

1: We can use 'hope' for the past when something happened and is finished, but we don't know what the result was. For example, if you have taken an exam, but I don't know if you passed or not. We still use 'hope' in the present tense, because it's something that we hope now, but the thing that we're thinking about is in the past. We can use the past tenses and the present perfect in the normal way (if something has an effect on the present, we use the present perfect and so on).

·         I hope she passed the exam.

·         I hope John hasn't got lost.

·         I hope Amanda found her keys.

2: We can use 'hope' for the past when we do know the result or outcome. For example, if you have taken an exam and failed and I know you failed. In this case, we use 'hope' in a past tense, because we no longer hope for the event or thing; we know it didn't happen. We use it to tell someone about how we felt in the past.

·         I hoped you would pass the exam. (But you didn't pass).

·         I hoped I'd see Lucy at the meeting. (But I didn't see her.)

It's common to use 'hope' in the past continuous (which doesn't really change the meaning from the past simple) and in the past perfect (which makes the idea that the hoping is finished stronger) in these kinds of sentences.

·         I was hoping you would pass the exam.

·         I had hoped you would pass the exam.

This use is very compatible with the third conditional.

·         I was hoping to pass the exam, and I would have passed it if I hadn't got sick.

d.Hope for 'future in the past'

Advanced point: Sometimes we use 'hope' for 'future in the past'. So, in the following example, the mother thought, in the past, 'I hope my son will go to university', and when we talk about this from the present, we use 'would'. We don't know if the son in fact went to university or not from this sentence.

·         She always hoped that her son would go to university.

Another example:

·         I got lost in the middle of London and I hoped that I would be able to find my way back to my hotel. (We don't know if the person found the hotel or not.)

e.Hope for negative wishes

It's also possible to use 'hope' in a very negative way. In this case, the thing doesn't need to be possible.

·         I hope your hair falls out and you lose all your money!

3. Conditional Sentence with Expressing Wish

The English word “wish” is used when the speaker wants reality to be different than it actually is. Wish is followed by a noun clause using past tense verb forms. The following pairs of examples express “true” statements about the past, present, and future, and how you would express a desire for the opposite (the wish) to be true.

a.      A wish about the past:

·         Ellen couldn’t come to the convention.

·         I wish Ellen could have come to the convention.

     b. A wish about the present:

·         It is snowing right now.

·         I wish it weren’t snowing right now.

     c.A wish about the future:

·         Robbie isn’t going to be able to attend the party.

·         I wish Robbie could attend the part.

4. Conditional Sentence without If

·         If I had known his real motive, I wouldn’t have supported him.

We can express the same idea without if.

·         Had I known his real motive, I wouldn’t have supported him.

Another example is given below.

·         If I had realized the importance of physical training, I would not have wasted my time in front of the television.

The above sentence can also be written as:

·         Had I realized the importance of physical training, I would not have wasted my time in front of the television.

·         If problems arise, we will seek professional help.

The same idea can be expressed without if.

·         Should problems arise, we will seek professional help.

We can also make conditional forms by putting ‘were’ at the beginning of the sentence.

·         Were I you, I wouldn’t permit this. (= If I were you, I would not permit this.)

Conditional sentences can also be made with unless.

·         Unless you work hard, you will not pass. (= If you do not work hard, you will not pass.)

Sources:

http://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/conditional_sentences.htm

https://www.grammarly.com/blog/conditional-sentences/

https://www.englishgrammar.org/conditional-clauses/

http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/hope.html

ELISKA TEJANINGTYAS

4SA02

13614504